从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用,标签：英语论文范文,毕业论文范文,http://www.dxs56.com
　　
　　2.2 Semantic innovation2.2.1 BorrowingMost obviously, euphemisms may be formed by borrowingwords from other languages—terms that are less freighted withnegative associations. Thus, we use Greek and Latinexpressions for many bodily parts and functions. We havecoined halitosis (bad breath) from the Latin (halitus) for“breath” and we have substituted micturition for the morevulgar Indo-European “Piss”. In addition, English euphemismsalso borrowed a lot of scientific or academic terms, which arebelieved to be more euphemistic and objective than the usualterms, such as magnetic for “sexy” and perspire for “sweat”
　　
　　and so on.
　　
　　2.2.2 WideningEuphemisms may be made by a semantic process calledwidening. When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid,we move up in the ladder of abstraction. In this way, cancerbecomes growth and a girdle becomes a foundation . Sometimes,in addition to widening we divide the negative connotations ofa single direct term between two or more words. Instead ofsaying “syphilis” openly, we speak of a social disease. www.dxs56.com
　　
　　2.2.3 Semantic shiftAllied to the phenomenon of widening is that of semanticshift. This is the substitution of the whole, or a similargenerality, for the specific part we do not choose to discuss.
　　
　　We may create such metonymies (substitutions of the whole forthe part) as rear end for “buttocks”. Sometimes, as in theexpressions "to sleep with/go to bed with someone"[10], we usewords naming the larger event in place of more precisereferences to the sexual relations that are part of theprocess.
　　
　　2.3 Rhetorical devices2.3.1 MetaphorEuphemisms may be made by a process called metaphoricaltransfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things ofanother. The euphemisms chosen are often romanticizing,poeticizing and softening of the original words like "go tosleep;     go to his long home; be home and free; rest inpeace; be at rest; go to Heaven/Paradise; join one'sancestors; be gathered to one's fathers; join the immorals fordie"[11], shock for random bombing, constructive destructionfor severe damage, have a road to travel for have a long timeto reach an agreement and etc..
　　
　　2.3.2 AposiopesisIn English, there is a kind of rhetoric called aposiopesisthat can also act as the way of euphemizing. When we think weshould not say something under certain conditions, we suddenlystop as when we say someone is out (of work); she is expecting(a baby); "to take precautions (against pregnancy); to depart(from this world)"[12]
　　
　　2.3.3AnalogyAnalogy can often be seen in the vocabularies of work. Atendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobs—sometimessubstituting a grand title for a large salary—can make offalsmell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitationengineers or even to waste--reduction managers. Byimplication, they become highly trained technicians andexecutives. Health-club staffs become fitness coordinators,and senators now have their shoes shined by the footwearmaintenance engineer, formerly the Senate bootblack. Even ifyou are not a government official, your janitor is now yourbuiding maintenance engineer. www.dxs56.com
　　
　　2.3.4 UnderstatementUnderstatement displays people’s desire to make theirlanguage less painful and direct. So there is never an uglywoman in this world, she is at least plain. Teachers only tellparents that their child is a bit slow for his age, notretarded. And call senior citizen for old person. "Takeother's things without permission" can be instead of "steal".
　　
　　2.3.5 PeriphrasisPeriphrasis is just beating around the bush. People oftensay euphemisms are weasel words, because people never call aspade a spade when using euphemisms.   Fart is not pleasant toear, so people call it wind from the behind. Someone wants youto go away, but he only says he will call your carriage foryou. Someone living at the government expense may make youenvy him, but actually he is in prison. "Many sayings aboutgoing to WC make a good use of periphrasis like wash one’shands, powder one’s nose, spend a penny. So do the 'drop' for'adjustment downward'[13]"2.4. Grammatical waysAccording to Bolinger, "Euphemism is not restricted to thelexicon. There are grammatical ways of toning something down”.
　　
　　Therefore, euphemizing should not be limited to lexical ways;it can also be achieved by grammatical ways.
　　
　　2.4.1 TenseIn English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color tothe expressions for something undesired. Especially whenpeople use want, hope, think and wonder or words like thatthey may also make use of the tense to sound moreeuphemistically. For example, I wondered if you would mindhelping me? or "I wondered if you could help me?"[14]. Askinghelp this way, people won’t feel so embarrassed if they wererefused.

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